The analysis of Teacher Talk

INTRODUCTION

A.  Background

Teacher talk becomes essential factors in English classroom since the behaviorsm theory looks at learning process through imitation, practice, reinforcement, and habit-formation. It can be drawn that  students in language classroom will try to imitate what they listen, and they will try to practice what they know if their teacher encourage them to speak English as a habit in classroom. Therefore teacher becomes a model for them.

Krashen theory (1981) about language acquistion that learners need comprehensible input has drawn more attention of scholars and researchers world wide, such as Lindholm-Leary (2001), Seedhouse (2004), Berlin (2005), Ellis & Barkhuizen (2005), Wright (2005), Robinson (2006) (Liu Yanfen & Zhao Yuqin 2010) to investigate teacher talk. The researchers have shown how teachers use language to facilitate learning and promote   interaction in their classroom.

There are some aspects of teacher talk which need to explore such as the characteristics of teacher talk, functions of teacher talk, the effect of teacher talk on students motivation, attitude, and achievement. In the era of communicative language teaching, the analyses of teacher talk typically focuses on the characteristics that fail to make such talk communicative (Richard Cullen) further more XU Xiao-hui (2010) stated  that teacher talk is usually viewed as one of the decisive factors of success or failure in classroom teaching, and Liu Yanfen & Zhao Yuqin, 2010 argue that  the success of teaching depends to a large extent on the way teachers talk and interactions that occur between teachers and students.

In relation to explanation above, the observer interested in analyzing teacher talk in terms of its characteristics and its function. This is a mini research which only recorded a teacher in English classroom in a meeting.

B.  Problem Statement

This observation intended to answer these following questions, which are listed as follows:

1.      What types of language were used by teacher in English classroom?

2.      How language was used by teacher in English classroom

3.      Did the teacher use non verbal communication in English classroom?

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A.  Teacher Talk

1.    Definition of teacher talk

Teacher talk is viewed from the the application of language that teacher used in classroom. Every words of teacher in classroom can control students’s activities. Sinclair ＆ Brazil, 1982 stated that teacher talk is the language in the classroom that takes up a major portion of class time employed to give directions, explain activities and check students’ understanding.

Ellis’s (1984) and Milal’s (1993) defined teacher talk as the language produced by teachers addressed to the students in classroom interaction serving two functions that is pedagogical and communicative. Pedagogical function refers to the language used by teachers that intentionally becomes a model for students in learning the language and communicative function deals with the language used by the students in their own interaction both inside and outside the classroom as the result of language model

2.    Characteristics of teacher talk

There are some characteristics of teacher talk. Breines’ (2002) stated that the teacher talk functioning as a language input for the students’ foreign language development should have the following characteristics:

a.       It is directive. The main function of directives is not only to instruct the students what to do but also to get the attention of the students;

b.      It is imperative. The teacher may employ humor and invite giggles and laughter to appreciate the social affection;

c.       It should be shorter, simpler, slower, and clearer speech; and

d.      There should be repetition

Chaudron’s (1988) proposed that teacher talk contains linguistic modifications or adjustments in terms of phonology, lexicon, syntax, and discourse.

a.    In the phonology level, the adjustment of teacher talk usually takes the form of slowing down the rate of speech, separating words/syllables articulation, using more careful pronunciation by giving heavier stress, and increasing volume on key words;

b.    In the lexicon level, the modifications are in the forms of using restricted vocabulary size, replacing the unfamiliar items with the more frequently used ones, and repeating words more frequently.

c.    In the syntax level, the modifications are usually in terms of using fewer contractions, shorter utterances, making grammatical relationship more explicit, and using co-ordinations more than subordinations, etc

3.    Types of teacher talk

According to Doff (1993)  there are two types of teacher talk instructional talk and manegement talk.

a.    Instructional talk.

  Instructional talk is employed to present the lesson or language content. There are some function of insrtructional talk which arelisted below:

1)      Introduction,

2)      Asking for information,

3)      Explanation,

4)      Encouraging,

5)      Giving direction

6)      Correcting,

7)      Interrupting,

8)      Introducing material,

9)      Giving examples,

10)  Attracting attention,

11)  Reminding,

12)  Consolidating,

13)  Drilling,

14)  Changing topic,

15)  Reading students’ writing,

16)  Asking to do something,

17)  Interpreting,

18)  Acknowledging,

19)  Finding out about language,

20)  Repeating,

21)  Commenting,

22)  Checking comprehension

23)  Giving suggestion,

24)  Dictating

b.     Management talk.

Management talk is used to manage classroom activities. The function of teacher talk are listed below:

1)   Greeting

2)   Instruction,

3)   Asking for information,

4)   Talk/chatting to students,

5)   Checking attendance,

6)   Grouping/telling students where to sit

7)   Encouraging,

8)   Giving turn,

9)   Thankingg

10)  Apologizing,

11)   Advising,

12)    Acknowledging,

13)     Asking to do

something,

14)   Marker, and

15)    Ending lesson/topic

Celcia-Murcia (1989) also defined teacher talk into two types, inderect talk and direct talk.

a.    Indirect talk may appear in such a way of accepting students’ feeling, stimulating students’ motivation and interest, using students’ perception, and offering questions, and

b.    Direct talk may come out in terms of informing something, giving direction, and justifying students’ authority.

B.  Non verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication refers to body language. Sometimes people can’t express their feeling, attitude, and opinion by using words, but they use body language. It can be seen from the way of people place and move their body, for instance the way people move,the way of their eyes are seeing, etc.

It seems that body languages convey certain meaning, so it is required the interpretation. There is a certain meaning of expression which people can be catched from body language, for instance the position of bodies, our closeness to and the space between us and other people (proximity), and how this changes, our facial expressions, our eyes especially and how our eyes move and focus, etc, how we touch ourselves and others, how our bodies connect with other non-bodily things, for instance, pens, spectacles and clothing, our breathing, and other less noticeable physical effects, for example our heartbeat and perspiration. Body language also tends to include the pace, pitch, and intonation, volume, variation, pauses, etc., of our voice.

Sometimes people interprate body language in a limited degree, but the subject is potentially immensely complex. Perhaps infinitely so, given that the human body is said to be capable of producing 700,000 different movements (Hartland and Tosh, 2001). Body language can be interpreted different from different people. There are some ways in which body language may vary in the their meaning. It may have a different because of context,culture, age,gender, etc.

Muhayyang, (2012) defined nonverbal communication as a multichannel-ed process performed spontaneously in communication. It typically involves a set of non linguistic behaviors that are enacted subconsciously in human communication and it is a part of communication process when someone intentionally attempts to convey a message, whether or not he/she intends to communicate a particular meaning.

THE ANALYSIS OF TEACHER TALK

In this research, the observer recorded a teacher in English language Center. He was teaching for adult. There were 5 students in classroom. Teacher used 95% English and Indonesian language (5%). Indonesian language was used as code switching. If his students did not understand his English, he switched it to Indonesian language but he only translated it for students. He said “How do you spell that?“ but his student felt confused to answer so he switched his language to Indonesian by saying “bagaimana kamu mengejanya?”. The teacher also used indonesian language to make it clear for his students. he compared indonesian sentences and English sentences to show the differences between two languages.

“How do you do? Don’t try to translate one by one “ bagaimana yang  kamu kerjakan”

“But we don’t ask about your  hometown, because i know you’re from Takalar, but i want to know “tadi darimana itu? Saya dari mall panakukang, darimana? Saya dari rumah sakit, so how do you ask the question about that. Darimana.... where do you come from? Yea, this is different. Just say “where have you been”

Teacher tried to be a model for his students. He used English fully in teaching process. He tried to customized his students to listen and speak English. He said to his students: “So first we are going to customize our self how to apply English. Customize  is the point here” .

The writer found some examples of teacher talk which refers to the way of teacher used language in classroom. It was used in teaching lesson and managing classroom activities. It can been by looking at its function.

1.     Checking attendence

Teacher checked attendant list in the beginning of classroom. Teacher in this observation meeting checked his students’ name and great his students. it was indicated that it was the first meeting of the classroom.. 

so  let me know first about you’re all

serly okey

Rejoice.... yaa, but not come today, i see

Ahmady, nice to see

Reza, nice to see you

Asriani,, oke momm Asriani

Indra Agus... doesn’t come, right

Alia also

Reva I have recognized her

2.    Asking for information

It was a request, for information and it was the commonest and most straightforward way to get some information about students. Teacher  employed his questioning skills.

Asriani, could you please tell me about your self

Yes, could you please tell me about yourself

I mean,  please introduce  yourself to me in order you aplly this programme

In English you call Local clinic, right

How long have you been here?

Nineteen ninety  nine

What? Two tousand and nine,, mmm, i see, thirteen years, really?, nice working right, you love your job

Yaa, detective.....from Tv

I see

Where do you live, oh so far?

How do you come here

By car? To Makassar, well great

Mr. Reza, could you please tell me about yourself?

Yeah...yeah.....oh

Miss eva could you please tell me about yourself

Any other, okey right enough

Mr.Ahmady, could you please tell me about yourself

Yeah.....by bicycle...... yeah

3.    Giving suggestion

Teacher gave suggestion to his students.

I think we have to be optimist in learning

The point is where ever and whenever we are, we can speak English little by a litle information

Yea step by step

English is not our mother tongue, so you can combine with attention, just try to speak up

Don’t be shy

So what will you do in this class room?

Step by step this is not our mother tongue

God willing, insyaallah selama kita punya tekad, kita pasti bisah, this is my progress when the first time I learn English: “ what you hear, you can’t forget, you hear you remember, what yo do you understand. You hear, you speak and you do.

So you can combine, or mixing atau menggabung-gabung. For today 20% English, 8o% Indonesia, the next meeting 25% English, 75 % Indonesia, next time  may be 50% English, 50 % Indonesia, until you get 100%

4.    Instruction

Teacher told to students what to do in classroom.

Well talking about this class

So your target is to be able to customize you listening to the conversation every time coming here. If you have difficult how to speak up, but in English you can combine with  bahasa Indonesia

It’s the principle

5.    Dictating

Teacher used language to dictate his students.

So have a look like this

This is my notebook

I’m bringing attendend list, I’m bringing a pen, i’m bringing a board marker, and also i have a book, I’m wearing watch, I’m bringing mobile phone

6.    Giving direction

Language was used to direct students

By that information, I want you all try to make one paragraph who i am

Let  start to unit one, part one, page 2

7.    Repeating

Teachers sometimes needed to repeat his words for a certain reason. In this context, teacher repeated his words to make it clear for his students.

By the information, notebook, attendent list, book marker, watch, try to make one paragraph to describe who i am

Try to make paragraph related to information

Ya, ya, ya, by this information, i have tell you that

I’m bringing attendend list, I’m bringing a pen, i’m bringing a board marker, and also i have a book, I’m wearing watch, I’m bringing mobile phone

One paragraph

One paragraph could be three or four line

From the information you can explain about it

One paragraph only

Okey? One paragraph enough. It’s only describe about me by given information

8.    Interpreting

Teacher gave responds to his student opinion by interpreting it.

Yeah......

You think that i’m workholic, because you see, I’m bringing notebook, so you think i always do everything by notebook

9.    Advising

Teacher gave advising to his students.

You can also explain about what is the function of this for me, what is of function of this,and you can also explain about what is the function of this for me, what is of function of this

10.                         Introducing material

Teacher  used language  to introduce material.

So when you meet person for the firt time you’ll great by saying how do you do. It means that the same meaning with how are you, but in this first meeting, i don’t know your name, you don’t know my name

I don’t know about your activity, we don’t know each other,

If we don’t recognize each other, we don’t know each other

For the first meeting, you have known me, i have known you, I just say how are you, and you give me respond “ i’m fine, i’m okay, or as usual (as usual seperti biasanya)

11.                         Giving Examples

Teacher gave example to his students in relation to material.

How are you (teacher is asking to some students)

How do you do?

And then after that you just may tell your name (Mr.Ahmad nice to see you)

12.                         Explanation

Teacher gave explanation to his students about material.

Am.is,are, what do you call that?

To be, alright

What is to be?

Mr.Ahmady, yea, Express how to apply “to be” in conversation

What is to be, Miss....yeah

Mr.Revan, what is to be?

To be “she is, I am, we are

So we apply  before the convesation

It does not have a certain meaning, tidak ada artinya, nanti ada artinya kalau dia digunakan dalam kalimat

We apply for adjective, for example. What is adjective? For example I am a teacher, you are diligent.

What is in English of “dia perempuan”

She is smart, She is not smart, Is she smart?

We apply in positive, in negative, and interrogative

We put it in the beginning of sentence for interrogative

I think you get the point from this conversation “to be” also apply for noun, noun is not only things (benda-benda) tetapi juga your job also

13.                         Acknowledgement

It referred to the very brief feedback from the teacher in response to correct answers.

Okay great

Wa great conversation

14.                        Ending lesson

Teacher closed his class.

I think enough for today. Thank you for your coming, thank you for your attention. See you next meeting

            Language functions for instructional talk that found from this observation were asking for information, giving suggestion, dictating, giving direction, repeating, interpreting, introducing material, giving example, giving example, explanation, and acknowledgement, and languge function for management talk were checking attendence, advising, instruction, advising, and ending lesson.

            The teacher spoke slowly and made it clear to his students by saying every words in the right stress and intonation. He tried to pronounce words in the right way, for instance he said “you think that i’m work holic” He gave heavier stress and increasing volume on think and workholic.

In the lexicon level, teacher tried to used familiar word such as recognized, Customize, apply, etc.and he repeated his words more frequently if his student did not understand for example: “I have told you that I’m bringing attendend list, I’m bringing a pen, i’m bringing a board marker, and also i have a book, I’m wearing watch, I’m bringing mobile phone”

In the syntax level, teacher tried to arrange his words into good sentences (It can be seen in the transcript data), for example when he said these follwowing sentences:

where are you from? I’m from Palopo

You also can ask where do you come from? I come from

He tried to arrange his words into a good sentence because he also explained about grammar and its used in sentences, but there was an evident where he made mistake in his talk, for example: “Rejoice.... yaa, but not come today, i see” he did not use auxilary ‘does’.  His wrong sentences can be found in this expression: “Okey let pay attention and listen carefully” This sentences need a subject between let and pay attention.

Teacher also used non verbal communication to facilitate learning and promote   interaction in his classroom. he used language to interact with their students but sometimes he used his body movement. He sometimes rose his voice , or he  sometimes changed his intonation in a certain expression. For example in this expression “I mean,  please introduce yourself to me in order you apply this programme” He gave a greater degree of loudness in his words mean and please introduce yourself.

Conclusion

Teacher employed two types of language. He used language to deliver material (instructional talk) such as asking for information, giving suggestion, dictating, giving direction, repeating, interpreting, introducing material, giving example, giving example, explanation, and acknowledgement, and he also used language to manage classroom (management talk) such as checking attendance, advising, instruction, advising, and ending lesson. His talk can be categorized into a good characteristic. He spoke clearly, used familiar words for his students, repeated his words or sentences, and arrange his words into a good sentence, although in some parts he made mistake. He sometimes used body language to communicate his thought.

REFERENCES

Cullen, R. 1997. Teacher talk and the classroom context

Hartland, D and Tosh, C. 2001. Guide to Body Language. Caxton

Muhayyang, Maemmuna. 2012. Teacher talk.

Krashen, S. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon.

Xiao-hui, X.  2010. Analysis of Teacher Talk on the Basis of RelevanceTheory. Canadian Social Science Vol. 6, No. 3, 2010, pp. 45-50.

Yanfen, L & Yuqin, Z. 2010. A Study of Teacher Talk in Interactions in English Classes. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics (Bimonthly) Vol. 33 No. 2